Golan Heights

Nir Topper
Jul 18
12 min read

One of the most fascinating and unique regions on a global scale, from almost any perspective we look at it: geology, topography, geography, history, and demography. I have tried to briefly present here a little about the Golan Heights, this rare area that is unlike any other I know.

The name "Golan" first appears in the Book of Deuteronomy as the name of a city in the territory of the tribe of Manasseh in the Bashan region: "Golan in Bashan, for the Manassites" (Deuteronomy 4:43). This city served as a city of refuge, and it is possible that this use gave it the name Golan, from the Hebrew root for "exile" or "diaspora." In Arabic, the plateau is known by a similar name: al-Jawlān (الجولان). In colloquial Arabic, a "jawwal" is a passerby or a nomad.

Forged in Fire: Volcanic Processes and Geological Foundations

The Golan Heights is the western edge of the vast volcanic field "Harrat al-Sham," considered one of the largest continuously basalt-covered areas in the world. As surprising as it may be, the fundamental geological structure of the Golan Heights is actually a syncline (a basin), formed as a result of the uplift of the Hermon anticline to the north and the Gilead anticline to the south. This "basin" was filled over the last five million years by a series of massive volcanic eruptions. Magma rose through geological fissures, flowed over the surface, and created the layered basalt plateaus that characterize the region today. The thickness of the basalt layer reaches its peak, in the center of the Golan, at about 750 meters.

The volcanic activity occurred in separate phases, creating different basalt layers known collectively as the "Bashan Group." The main formations include:

Cover Basalt: The oldest and most foundational layers, which also covered parts of the Lower Galilee.
Ortal Formation: Formed about 1.7 to 1.8 million years ago. This formation is characterized by a very rocky landscape, rich in stones and boulders and poor in soil, typical of the central and northern Golan Heights.
Golan Formation: This is the youngest volcanic phase, which occurred between 500,000 and 100,000 years ago. This activity created most of the prominent volcanic hills (tells) in the landscape, built mainly of scoria and tuff, and concentrated in the Israeli "Line of Volcanic Hills."

The main rock types on the plateau are basalt, scoria, and tuff. Scoria, a porous volcanic rock, is mined in quarries like the one on Mount Hermonit and is used as a growing medium in greenhouses.

The Lay of the Land: Topography, Borders, and Regional Division

Topography: The Golan Heights is a flat plateau that slopes gently from north to south. Its elevation ranges from about 300 meters above sea level in the south to over 1,100 meters in the north, at the foot of Mount Hermon (Mount Hermon is a separate geographical unit and is not part of the Golan Heights).

Geographical Borders: The natural borders of the plateau are well-defined: the Yarmouk River to the south, the Sea of Galilee and the Hula Valley (the Syrian-African Rift Valley) to the west, and the Sa'ar Stream to the north, which separates it from the distinct geological unit of Mount Hermon. The eastern border, less distinct, generally runs along the Raqqad and Allan streams. The area under Israeli control covers about 1,200 square kilometers.

The "Line of Volcanic Hills": A prominent topographical feature is the chain of extinct volcanoes stretching from north to south, from Mount Ram to Tel Saki. These hills, including Mount Avital (1,204 meters) and Mount Bental (1,165 meters), rise up to 300 meters above their flat surroundings. This line of hills holds immense strategic importance.

Regional Division: It is customary to divide the Golan into three sub-regions, which differ in topography and climate:

Southern Golan: South of the Daliyot Stream. This area is hotter and drier, but its deep soil makes it particularly suitable for agriculture.
Central Golan: Between the Daliyot and Gilabon streams. Characterized by deep canyons that cut through the plain.
Northern Golan: The highest and coldest region, dominated by the line of volcanic hills and oak forests.

The geological contrasts dictate the character of the region: the same volcanic forces that created the fertile lands in the south also formed the rocky and agriculturally challenging landscape of the north and center. This division has dictated settlement patterns for thousands of years, with agriculture concentrated in the south, while the north remained sparsely populated or forested.

Arteries of Life: Hydrology and Water Sources

The topography and high amount of precipitation make the Golan Heights a region rich in waterfalls. Hydrologically, the porous basalt layers on top of impermeable strata create an efficient aquifer. Many streams flow from the plateau into the Sea of Galilee and the Yarmouk River, together supplying about a third of the water entering the Sea of Galilee – a fact that is a cornerstone of the plateau's strategic importance. Additionally, the area is dotted with natural and artificial water reservoirs essential for local agriculture.

Unique Geological Phenomena

Birkat Ram: A natural lake located in a volcanic crater in the northern Golan, at an altitude of about 1,000 meters. Its formation is disputed among geologists: some believe it is a "Maar," created by a massive steam explosion when hot magma met groundwater, while others see it as a caldera, the crater of a collapsed volcano. The lake is fed by rainwater, groundwater, and surface runoff, and is an important water source for agriculture in the area.

The "Jubas": In the Odem Forest, there are over 20 large, circular topographic depressions. The "Great Juba" is 60 meters deep and 250 meters in diameter. Their origin is uncertain; theories range from an explosion of trapped volcanic gas to the collapse of karstic caves in the limestone rock beneath the basalt layer.

The Paleomagnetism Rock: Near the Wasset junction (Ha'amir junction), there is an exposure of basalt rock that causes compasses to deviate significantly from the magnetic north. When I studied this, the prevailing theory was a magnetic field reversal, which occurs every few hundred thousand years on Earth. However, today, theories suggest it was likely caused by a lightning strike that hit the hot lava as it cooled, disrupting the magnetic alignment of the minerals in the rock. The site serves as an accessible and fascinating demonstration of complex geological phenomena.

Avital Volcanic Park: The park was established in a restored tuff quarry on Mount Avital and vividly displays unique volcanic phenomena such as "volcanic bombs" and stratigraphic layers of ash and scoria, which teach about the plateau's turbulent geological past.

The Continuum of Historical Control: From the Biblical Period to the End of the Ottoman Era

For thousands of years, the Golan Heights consistently served as a strategic military frontier rather than the heartland of any empire. Its value was always defined in relation to the centers of power around it: Damascus to the east, and the Galilee and the coastal plain to the west. This status as a "borderland" explains its cyclical history, characterized by periods of fortification, neglect, and resettlement.

The Biblical, Second Temple, and Roman-Byzantine Periods

First Temple Period (c. 1000 to 586 BCE): In the Bible, the region is known as "the Bashan." After being conquered and allocated to half the tribe of Manasseh, "Golan in Bashan" served as a city of refuge. The period was characterized by a constant struggle between the Kingdom of Israel and Aram-Damascus, until the Assyrian conquest of the region in 732 BCE.
Second Temple and Hasmonean Periods: After the return to Zion, Jewish communities re-established themselves in the area. The Hasmonean king Alexander Jannaeus conquered the Golan at the beginning of the first century BCE and annexed it to his kingdom.
The Roman and Byzantine Periods: This era was the "Golden Age" of the Golan. Despite the failure of the Great Revolt, in which Gamla was the last Jewish stronghold in the region to fall to the Romans in 67 CE, Jewish life on the plateau flourished. This is evidenced by the remains of about 25 ancient synagogues (such as in Gamla, Katzrin, and Ein Keshatot). These findings, alongside an economy based on olive oil, point to dense and prosperous Jewish communities that turned the Golan into a major center of Jewish life, not a peripheral area.
The synagogue at Umm el Kanatir (Ein Keshatot)

The Muslim, Crusader, and Mamluk Periods

After the Battle of Yarmouk (636), Byzantine rule ended. The area flourished under the Umayyad Caliphate but later declined, and its Jewish settlement disappeared. During the Crusader and Ayyubid periods, the Golan was a volatile border territory. Nimrod Fortress was built by the Ayyubids (around 1228) to defend Damascus and was expanded and fortified by the Mamluk Sultan Baibars after his victory over the Mongols (1260). Most of its remains today are from his era. With the expulsion of the Crusaders (1291), the area lost its strategic importance and was largely abandoned.

The Ottoman Period (1517-1918) For most of the Ottoman period, the Golan was a sparsely populated frontier region controlled by Bedouin tribes. In the 19th century, in an effort to consolidate their rule, the Ottomans initiated a demographic change and settled Circassians and Turkmens from the Caucasus in the Golan, alongside the establishment of older Druze communities. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, several attempts at Jewish settlement were made, such as the establishment of the "Bnei Yehuda" colony and land purchases by Baron Rothschild. These efforts failed due to disease, attacks, and opposition from the Ottoman authorities. However, these attempts, along with the inclusion of the Golan in Herzl's book Altneuland, kept the region in the Zionist consciousness and created a historical and ideological precedent for the settlement enterprise after 1967.

The Last Hundred Years: Shaping Borders and the Struggle for the Golan

The 20th century transformed the Golan from an Ottoman frontier into a fortified international border, and ultimately into a stage for decisive battles that profoundly shaped Israel's strategy and security. The events of 1967 and 1973 cannot be understood without the context of the Syrian aggression that preceded them, and together they form a sequence of cause and effect.

The Mandate and Syrian Rule (1923-1967) The Paulet-Newcombe Agreement of 1923 transferred the Golan to the control of the French Mandate, while ensuring water rights for Israel in the Sea of Galilee. After Syria's independence in 1946, the Golan became a fortified military zone. Between 1948 and 1967, Syria exploited its topographical advantage for systematic aggression that included shooting and shelling of civilian communities in the Hula Valley and on the shores of the Sea of Galilee. This ongoing aggression is the direct backdrop to the Israeli decision to capture the plateau in the Six-Day War.

The Six-Day War (June 1967): The Capture of the Heights On June 5, 1967, with the outbreak of the war, Syria began shelling and bombing targets in northern Israel. In the first few days, the Israeli government, including Minister of Defense Moshe Dayan, hesitated to open a full front against Syria. However, given the continued Syrian attacks and the decisive successes on the Egyptian and Jordanian fronts, the decision to attack was made on June 9. The Israeli offensive involved a combined attack by several brigades that fought difficult battles against a well-fortified Syrian array. By June 10, after two days of fierce fighting, IDF forces had captured the entire Golan Heights up to the city of Quneitra, establishing a new ceasefire line (the "Purple Line").

The Yom Kippur War (October 1973): Battles of Defense and Decision The 1973 war proved definitively the strategic importance of the Golan. The depth and topographical advantage gained in 1967 allowed the few IDF forces to block a massive Syrian surprise attack, which began on October 6. Facing an enormous Syrian force, regular forces, mainly the 7th and 188th Armored Brigades, fought heroic defensive battles at a severe numerical disadvantage. Key battles included:

The Valley of Tears Battle: In the northern Golan, the 7th Brigade, under the command of Avigdor Kahalani, halted waves of attacks by hundreds of Syrian tanks, destroying many of them and preventing their breakthrough westward toward the Jordan River.
Battles of the Southern Golan: The 188th Brigade fought desperate battles to stop the Syrian columns advancing toward the Sea of Galilee. The Syrian forces were finally halted near Nafah. The battle for Tel Saki, where a handful of besieged soldiers held out for days, became a symbol of heroism and fighting in isolation.

The Golan's topography—the plateau, the volcanic hills, and the anti-tank ditches—slowed the Syrian advance and provided essential defensive positions ("ramps") for Israeli tanks. This delay was critical and allowed for the mobilization of reserve forces. By October 10, with the arrival of reserves, the IDF launched a counter-offensive, pushed the Syrian army off the plateau, destroyed the bulk of its armored force, and advanced into Syria (the "Syrian Enclave").

From Separation of Forces to Today: The Geopolitical Status Quo

The Separation of Forces Agreement (1974): Mediated by Henry Kissinger, an agreement was signed that regularized the ceasefire. Israel withdrew from the Syrian enclave and from a narrow strip that included the ruined city of Quneitra. A buffer zone was established where the UNDOF force was stationed. This agreement created a stable and quiet border for decades, in sharp contrast to the border with Lebanon. This stability did not stem from reconciliation, but from clear military deterrence based on Israeli control of the dominant territory.
The Golan Heights Law (1981): In December 1981, the Knesset passed the "Golan Heights Law," which applied the "law, jurisdiction, and administration of the state" to the territory, thereby de facto annexing it to Israel. The UN Security Council, in Resolution 497, condemned the move and declared it "null and void."
American Recognition (2019): On March 25, 2019, the United States, under President Donald Trump, officially recognized Israel's sovereignty over the Golan Heights, a move that changed the diplomatic map but not the reality on the ground.

The Human Mosaic: Demography, Society, and Identity in the Golan Heights

The Population Before 1967 and the Dramatic Shift It is difficult to estimate the number of Syrian residents in the Golan before June 1967. We do know that the Golan Heights was an active and inhabited Syrian province. The population was diverse and included Sunni Arabs, Circassians, Turkmens, and a Druze community in the north. During and immediately after the Six-Day War, the vast majority of this population fled or was expelled. The census conducted by Israel in August 1967 found only 6,396 inhabitants in the area, the absolute majority of whom were Druze concentrated in their villages in the northern Golan.

Israeli Settlement: Building a New Presence Israeli settlement on the plateau began almost immediately after the fighting ended. The first community, Kibbutz Merom Golan, was established as early as July 1967. Since then, a network of 33 communities has been established, including kibbutzim, moshavim, community settlements, and the urban center of Katzrin. The Israeli population now numbers around 25,000.

The Druze Community in the Golan: Between Syria and Israel Today, about 25,000 Druze live in the Golan Heights in four main villages: Majdal Shams, Mas'ade, Buq'ata, and Ein Qiniyye. These are the main communities that remained after 1967. Following the "Golan Heights Law" in 1981, residents were offered Israeli citizenship, but most refused and accepted "permanent resident" status. This refusal stemmed from loyalty to Syria as well as a pragmatic fear of retribution if the Golan were to be returned to Syrian control in the future.

The Syrian Civil War, which began in 2011, was a turning point. The collapse of the Syrian state and the rise of extremist elements fundamentally changed the balance of considerations for the Druze community. The fear of returning to a vengeful Assad regime was replaced by fear of regional chaos, while the State of Israel was perceived as a source of stability and security. As a result of this and other parallel processes the Druze population in the Golan is undergoing, there has been an increase in the number of applications for Israeli citizenship. The shift in identity is not necessarily a rejection of Druze or Syrian cultural identity, but a pragmatic adoption of the new political and security reality.

Unique Sites

The Mystery of Gilgal Refaim (Rujum el-Hiri)

This is a massive prehistoric megalithic structure in the central Golan, composed of several concentric circular stone walls. The diameter of the outer circle is about 157 meters, and the walls are built of enormous basalt stones. In the center of the structure stands a stone cairn (rujum) covering a burial chamber. The structure is dated to the Early Bronze Age, about 5,000 years ago, making it a contemporary of the pyramids in Egypt.

The original purpose of the site remains a mystery. Theories range from an ancient astronomical calendar (alignments with the solstices have been identified), a ritual site, or a monumental tomb for an important leader. Its Arabic name, Rujum el-Hiri, means "cairn of the wild cats." The site is located in an IDF firing zone, and access requires coordination, which is usually possible on weekends.

Ancient Jewish Heritage: The Synagogues of the Golan The remains of synagogues from the Roman and Byzantine periods testify to a rich and prosperous Jewish presence in the Golan. Two examples:

Ancient Katzrin Village and Synagogue: A partially reconstructed village from the Talmudic period, with a remarkably preserved synagogue. The site offers a tangible glimpse into the daily life of a Jewish community in the Golan about 1,500 years ago.
Ein Keshatot (Umm el-Qanatir): The remains of a monumental synagogue, destroyed in an earthquake in 749 CE. The site has undergone a unique technological restoration process, in which each stone was scanned and returned to its original place. The synagogue, situated next to a spring in a dramatic canyon, testifies to the wealth and resilience of the community that built it.

Battle Heritage Sites: Shaping Collective Memory (Just a few examples)

Mount Bental: A former IDF outpost on the summit of a volcanic hill, offering a panoramic view of the Valley of Tears, the abandoned city of Quneitra, and the plains of Syria. The site includes restored combat trenches and sculptures, and functions as an open-air museum explaining the battles of the Yom Kippur War.
Tel Saki: A small volcanic hill where a small IDF force was besieged during the Yom Kippur War. The preserved bunker and the monument on the site tell a story of supreme heroism and sacrifice, and it has become a major military heritage site. (Image: Tel Saki)
Oz 77 Memorial: Located in the Valley of Tears, this memorial commemorates the heroism of the soldiers of the 77th Battalion of the 7th Brigade, who played a decisive role in halting the Syrian attack in 1973.